India's foreign policy
1. India’s Claim to Civilizational Exceptionalism
India’s foreign policy is deeply rooted in its civilizational heritage, which it leverages to project a unique identity on the global stage. This notion of civilizational exceptionalism is derived from India’s ancient philosophical traditions, including concepts like dharma (moral order) and Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (the world is one family), which emphasize universalism, peace, and harmony.
Historical Context: India’s self-conception as a civilizational state draws from its 5,000-year history, including the Mauryan Empire, the philosophical contributions of the Upanishads, and the global spread of Buddhism. This heritage informs India’s soft power, exemplified by its advocacy for non-violence and peaceful coexistence, as seen in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Panchsheel principles.
Modern Application: Under the Modi government, this exceptionalism has been reinvigorated to project India as a Vishwaguru (world teacher). Prime Minister Narendra Modi has emphasized India’s cultural and spiritual heritage in global forums, such as the G20 and UN, to position India as a moral and ethical leader. This is evident in initiatives like the International Day of Yoga and the promotion of Ayurveda globally.
Critique: While this narrative strengthens India’s soft power, critics argue it risks being conflated with Hindu nationalism, potentially alienating religious minorities domestically and complicating relations with countries wary of India’s ideological shift.
2. Role of Parliament in India’s Foreign Policy
The Indian Parliament plays a significant but often secondary role in shaping foreign policy, which is primarily driven by the executive, particularly the Prime Minister and the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA).
Constitutional Framework: The Constitution of India vests foreign policy powers in the Union government (Article 246, Seventh Schedule). The MEA, under the Prime Minister’s oversight, formulates and executes policy, but Parliament provides oversight through debates, questions, and committees like the External Affairs Committee.
Key Functions:
Debates and Oversight: Parliament discusses treaties, international agreements, and major foreign policy decisions. For instance, the India-US Civil Nuclear Deal (2008) was extensively debated, reflecting Parliament’s role in scrutinizing strategic shifts.
Budgetary Control: Parliament approves the MEA’s budget, influencing resource allocation for diplomatic initiatives.
Public Accountability: Parliamentary questions hold the government accountable, as seen in discussions on India’s response to the Russia-Ukraine conflict or border tensions with China.
Limitations: Foreign policy is often centralized, with limited parliamentary input on real-time decisions. The Modi government’s preference for executive-led diplomacy, including Modi’s frequent international visits, has sometimes sidelined Parliament’s role.
Impact: While Parliament ensures democratic accountability, its influence is constrained by the executive’s dominance and the complexity of real-time diplomacy.
3. Factors That Eclipse India’s Foreign Policy
Several factors constrain India’s ability to fully realize its foreign policy objectives:
Geopolitical Challenges: The “two-and-a-half front war” scenario—referring to potential simultaneous conflicts with China, Pakistan, and internal insurgencies—strains India’s military and diplomatic resources. The 2020 Galwan Valley clash with China and ongoing tensions with Pakistan underscore these pressures.
Economic Constraints: Despite India’s economic growth, its per capita income and infrastructure lag behind global powers, limiting its ability to project power. For instance, India’s maritime infrastructure is inadequate compared to China’s, impacting its Indian Ocean strategy.
Domestic Weaknesses: Internal challenges like poverty, corruption, and regional disparities weaken India’s global standing. Former President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam emphasized that a country cannot be powerful abroad if it is weak at home.
Regional Instability: Anti-India regimes in neighboring countries (e.g., Maldives, Nepal) and China’s growing influence in South Asia (via the Belt and Road Initiative) complicate India’s Neighbourhood First policy.
Global Dynamics: The rise of multipolarity, shifting alliances, and competition between the US, China, and Russia force India to navigate complex strategic choices, balancing strategic autonomy with partnerships.
4. Two-and-a-Half Front War
The concept of a “two-and-a-half front war” encapsulates India’s strategic concerns:
China (First Front): The Sino-Indian border dispute, particularly along the Line of Actual Control (LAC), remains a major challenge. The 1962 war and 2020 Galwan clash highlight China’s assertiveness. India’s response includes military modernization and partnerships like the Quad (US, Japan, Australia, India) to counter China’s influence.
Pakistan (Second Front): The India-Pakistan rivalry, centered on Kashmir, fuels tensions. Incidents like the 1999 Kargil conflict and the 2001 Parliament attack underscore Pakistan’s use of proxy warfare. India’s coercive diplomacy and surgical strikes (e.g., 2016 Uri) reflect a tougher stance.
Internal Security (Half Front): Insurgencies in Kashmir, the Northeast, and Naxal-affected areas divert resources and attention. The revocation of Jammu and Kashmir’s autonomy in 2019 aimed to address this but sparked domestic and international controversy.
Strategic Implications: This scenario necessitates a robust defense posture, including increased defense spending (India has the world’s third-largest military budget) and strategic partnerships to deter adversaries.
5. Realist Trend in Indian Foreign Policy Under the Modi Government
Under Prime Minister Narendra Modi (since 2014), India’s foreign policy has shifted toward a more realist and pragmatic orientation, moving away from the idealism of the Nehruvian era:
Pragmatic Engagement: Modi’s policy emphasizes enlightened national interest, prioritizing economic growth, security, and global influence. His frequent international visits (over 100 in his first term) and personal diplomacy with leaders like Trump, Putin, and Xi reflect this approach.
Economic Diplomacy: Initiatives like Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat integrate economic goals with foreign policy, seeking foreign investment and technology transfers. The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (2011) and support for projects like the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor exemplify this.
Security Focus: Modi’s government has prioritized hard power, evident in military modernization, the 2016 surgical strikes, and a firm response to China’s 2020 aggression. The No First Use nuclear doctrine remains, but debates on its revision reflect a hawkish stance.
Balancing Power: India engages multiple partners (US, Russia, China) without formal alliances, leveraging the global balance of power. Its SCO membership and Quad participation reflect this strategic hedging.
Critique: Critics argue this realism risks alienating neighbors and over-relying on executive-led diplomacy, potentially undermining institutional processes.
6. SAARC Failure
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), established in 1985, aimed to foster regional cooperation but has largely failed to achieve its potential:
Reasons for Failure:
India-Pakistan Tensions: The rivalry between India and Pakistan, exacerbated by events like the 2008 Mumbai attacks, has paralyzed SAARC. The 2016 summit was canceled after India withdrew due to Pakistan’s alleged support for terrorism.
Lack of Trust: Smaller members like Nepal and Sri Lanka fear India’s dominance, while India perceives some neighbors aligning with China.
Structural Weaknesses: SAARC lacks enforceable mechanisms and faces bureaucratic inefficiencies, limiting progress on trade or connectivity.
India’s Response: India has shifted focus to alternative forums like BIMSTEC, which excludes Pakistan, to promote regional cooperation. The Neighbourhood First policy emphasizes bilateral ties over multilateral frameworks.
Impact: SAARC’s dysfunction weakens South Asian integration, allowing China to expand influence through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative.
7. Three Indian Schools of Strategic Thought
India’s strategic thought can be categorized into three schools, each shaping its grand strategy:
Nehruvian Idealism:
Core Tenets: Emphasizes non-alignment, moral leadership, and global peace. Rooted in anti-colonialism and Panchsheel, it seeks a cooperative world order.
Influence: Dominant post-independence, it shaped NAM and India’s role in UN peacekeeping. However, the 1962 Sino-Indian war exposed its limitations, prompting a realist shift.
Realist School:
Core Tenets: Focuses on national interest, hard power, and strategic autonomy. Advocates like Sardar Patel emphasized pragmatism over idealism.
Influence: Gained prominence under Modi, seen in military modernization, Quad participation, and a firm stance against China.
Hindu Nationalist School:
Core Tenets: Rooted in Hindutva, it views India as a civilizational state with a unique moral and cultural role. It emphasizes dharma and national pride.
Influence: Under the BJP, this school shapes narratives of India as a Vishwaguru, influencing policies like cultural diplomacy and ties with the Indian diaspora.
8. Kamandaka’s Nitisara and Diplomacy
Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a post-Mauryan treatise on statecraft, offers insights into India’s diplomatic traditions:
Key Principles:
Six-Fold Policy (Shadgunya): Includes peace (sandhi), war (vigraha), neutrality (asana), alliance (samsraya), double-dealing (dvaidhibhava), and preparation for war (yana). These guide strategic decision-making.
Diplomacy as Strategy: Kamandaka emphasizes diplomacy (sama, dana, bheda, danda) to achieve state objectives, balancing persuasion, inducement, division, and force.
Relevance to Modern India: India’s foreign policy reflects Kamandaka’s principles through strategic hedging (e.g., balancing US and Russia ties), economic inducements (e.g., vaccine diplomacy), and coercive measures (e.g., surgical strikes). The Neighbourhood First policy aligns with sama (conciliation) to build trust with neighbors.
Critique: While Kamandaka’s framework provides flexibility, its application is challenged by modern complexities like nuclear deterrence and global economic interdependence.
9. Frontiers and Buffers in Colonial India
During colonial rule, India’s frontiers and buffers shaped its geopolitical strategy:
Frontier Policy: The British maintained a “forward policy” to secure India’s northwest and northeast frontiers against Russian and Chinese threats. This involved controlling strategic passes (e.g., Khyber Pass) and establishing buffer states like Afghanistan and Bhutan.
Buffer States: Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim served as buffers against external powers. Treaties like the 1816 Treaty of Sagauli with Nepal ensured British influence while preserving nominal autonomy.
Legacy: Post-independence, India inherited these contested frontiers, leading to disputes with China (Aksai Chin, Arunachal Pradesh) and Pakistan (Kashmir). The McMahon Line, established in 1914, remains a point of contention with China.
Modern Relevance: India’s border infrastructure development and military deployments along the LAC reflect a continuation of frontier security concerns.
10. Enlightened National Interest
The concept of enlightened national interest, articulated by Modi in 2014, blends pragmatism with moral values:
Definition: It prioritizes India’s security, economic growth, and global influence while adhering to ethical principles like Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
Applications:
Economic Growth: Policies like Make in India and infrastructure partnerships (e.g., with Japan) aim to boost India’s economy.
Global Leadership: India’s vaccine diplomacy during COVID-19 (exporting 60 million doses) and climate change advocacy reflect moral leadership.
Security: A firm stance against China and Pakistan ensures territorial integrity.
Critique: Balancing moral imperatives with realist goals is challenging, as seen in India’s neutral stance on the Russia-Ukraine conflict, which critics argue prioritizes trade over ethics.
11. I2U2
The I2U2 grouping (India, Israel, UAE, US) is a minilateral initiative launched in 2021 to foster economic and strategic cooperation:
Objectives: Focuses on technology, food security, and clean energy. Key projects include a hybrid renewable energy project in India and food security initiatives in the UAE.
Strategic Significance: I2U2 counters China’s influence in West Asia and strengthens India’s ties with Israel and the UAE, reducing Pakistan’s regional leverage.
Impact: It aligns with India’s Think West policy, enhancing its role in the Indo-Pacific and Middle East.
12. Neighbourhood First Policy
Introduced under Modi, the Neighbourhood First policy prioritizes relations with South Asian neighbors:
Key Initiatives:
Development Assistance: India provides aid through programs like ITEC and supports infrastructure projects like the Chabahar port in Iran.
Security Cooperation: India assisted Bhutan during the 2017 Doklam crisis and supported the Maldives via Operation Cactus (1988).
Challenges: China’s String of Pearls strategy, involving ports in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, undermines India’s influence.
Outcomes: While India has strengthened ties with Bhutan and Maldives, relations with Pakistan and Nepal remain strained.
13. Para-Diplomacy
Para-diplomacy refers to subnational entities engaging in international relations:
Examples: Indian states like Gujarat and Tamil Nadu host investment summits to attract foreign capital. Cultural exchanges, like West Bengal’s ties with Bangladesh, also play a role.
Impact: Para-diplomacy enhances India’s economic diplomacy but requires coordination to align with national priorities.
14. Self-Conception: Moral Politic Power
India’s self-conception as a moral power is rooted in its civilizational ethos and post-colonial identity:
Historical Roots: Nehru’s advocacy for non-alignment and anti-colonialism positioned India as a moral leader.
Modi Era: The BJP emphasizes India’s cultural heritage, projecting it as a Vishwaguru. Initiatives like vaccine diplomacy reflect this moral stance.
Critique: This self-conception is challenged by domestic issues like human rights concerns in Kashmir, which impact India’s global image.
15. Gujral Doctrine
Formulated by Prime Minister I.K. Gujral (1997-1998), the Gujral Doctrine outlines five principles for relations with neighbors:
Non-reciprocity with smaller neighbors.
No use of territory against another country.
Non-interference in internal affairs.
Respect for territorial integrity.
Peaceful bilateral dispute resolution.
Impact: It strengthened ties with Bangladesh and Sri Lanka but was less effective with Pakistan due to ongoing tensions.
Relevance: The doctrine informs India’s Neighbourhood First policy, emphasizing generosity and trust-building.
16. People-to-People Factor in India-Israel Relations
India-Israel relations have deepened since diplomatic ties were established in 1992:
Cultural Ties: Shared historical experiences as ancient civilizations and colonial subjects foster mutual understanding.
Diaspora Role: The Indian diaspora in Israel and Jewish communities in India (e.g., Bene Israel) strengthen ties.
Modi’s Role: Modi’s 2017 visit to Israel and Netanyahu’s 2018 visit to India highlighted personal diplomacy. Cooperation in defense, agriculture, and technology has grown.
Impact: People-to-people ties enhance strategic partnerships, countering Pakistan’s influence in West Asia.
17. Role of Leadership
Leadership is central to India’s foreign policy:
Nehru’s Legacy: Nehru’s idealism shaped NAM and India’s global role.
Modi’s Dynamism: Modi’s proactive diplomacy, social media engagement, and focus on enlightened national interest have elevated India’s profile. His personal rapport with leaders like Trump and Putin has driven partnerships.
Critique: Over-reliance on personal diplomacy risks institutional neglect and policy inconsistency.
18. Indian Ocean Strategy
The Indian Ocean is critical to India’s security and economic interests:
SAGAR Initiative: The Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) policy aims to make India a net security provider, enhancing maritime capabilities and regional cooperation.
Challenges: China’s String of Pearls strategy, involving ports in Gwadar (Pakistan), Hambantota (Sri Lanka), and Chittagong (Bangladesh), encircles India.
Response: India counters through partnerships (e.g., Quad, I2U2) and infrastructure projects like Chabahar port.
19. Nuclear Policy
India’s nuclear policy balances deterrence with restraint:
No First Use (NFU): Adopted post-1998 Pokhran II tests, NFU underscores India’s responsible nuclear posture. However, BJP leaders have hinted at revising NFU, reflecting a realist shift.
Strategic Autonomy: The 2008 India-US Nuclear Deal enhanced India’s access to nuclear technology while preserving autonomy.
Challenges: Pakistan’s tactical nuclear weapons and China’s modernization pose threats, necessitating India’s ongoing arsenal upgrades.
20. Act East Policy
Launched in 2014, the Act East policy builds on the 1991 Look East policy to strengthen ties with East and Southeast Asia:
Economic Focus: The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement and connectivity projects like the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project enhance economic ties.
Strategic Goals: Partnerships with Japan, Vietnam, and Australia counter China’s influence in the Indo-Pacific. The Quad is a key platform.
Outcomes: India’s increased engagement with ASEAN and participation in Indo-Pacific frameworks reflect a proactive stance.
21. String of Pearls
China’s String of Pearls strategy involves developing ports across the Indian Ocean to encircle India:
Key Ports: Gwadar (Pakistan), Hambantota (Sri Lanka), Chittagong (Bangladesh), and Kyaukpyu (Myanmar).
Impact: These ports enhance China’s naval presence, threatening India’s maritime security.
India’s Counter: India invests in Chabahar port, strengthens Quad partnerships, and promotes SAGAR to assert influence in the Indian Ocean.
22. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
NAM, co-founded by India in 1961, aimed to provide newly independent nations an alternative to Cold War blocs:
Historical Role: Led by Nehru, Tito, and Nasser, NAM advocated anti-colonialism, disarmament, and peaceful coexistence. India hosted the 1983 NAM Summit, focusing on development and Palestine.
Post-Cold War Relevance: The end of the Cold War diminished NAM’s strategic weight, but India continues to engage to amplify the Global South’s voice.
Modern Context: NAM’s principles align with India’s strategic autonomy, but its effectiveness is limited in a multipolar world dominated by great power competition.
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